Canada’s waste abroad and in the ocean

Canada’s export of plastic waste

In 2018, Canada produced 6.3 million tons of plastic (Government of Canada, 2022). Due to the durability of plastic, it can take anywhere from 50 to 200 years to decompose (Government of Canada, 2022). Inadequate management of plastic waste has led to it becoming the primary source of pollution in various ecosystems, particularly in the oceans and developing countries (Jambeck et al., 2015). Additionally, there are local repercussions, as improper incineration of plastic waste generates air pollutants domestically as well (Zhang, 2022).

Historically, a significant portion of the plastic waste generated by Western nations found its way to China. Given China's extensive production of consumer goods for European and North American markets, it imported plastic waste with the intention of reintegrating it into the economy as raw material, despite the fact that such waste often contained impurities (Ren et al., 2020). China's reputation as a "waste haven" emerged within an environment characterized by lenient or nonexistent environmental regulations, particularly within informal waste management sectors (Kellenberg, 2012; Bernard et al., 2014). The abundance of containers traveling from China to Western countries at low transportation costs also contributed to this phenomenon. In essence, exporting waste allowed for the efficient use of containers that would otherwise have returned empty, thereby facilitating cost-sharing associated with transportation (Qu et al., 2019). Additionally, the inexpensive labor available in informal labor sectors played a role, as concerns about workers' quality of life and exposure to hazardous substances were largely overlooked.

At the end of 2017, China introduced a policy known as National Sword, which involved stricter regulations for import of recyclable materials and a halt to plastic waste imports. China claimed health and environmental concerns as the rationale behind this policy change. The World Trade Organization was informed of this new policy in July 2017, and the ban officially commenced on January 1, 2018. Consequently, developing countries had to swiftly seek alternative destinations for their waste, leading to significant disruptions in international trade within the waste sector. This was also reflected by a spike of illegal trade of plastic waste (INTERPOL, 2020).

For approximately two decades, Canada predominantly exported its plastic waste to China and the United States. The implementation of Operation Green Fence in 2013 led to a temporary reduction in the volume of waste exports to China. Despite this, exports decreased from 203 thousand metric tonnes in 2012 to 170 MT in 2013, only to rebound to 192 MT in 2015 and 214 MT in 2016. Meanwhile, exports to the United States and other parts of the world remained stable. Consequently, in 2016, 45% of Canada's waste exports were directed to China, with 50% going to the United States.

Graph 1. Volume of Canadian exports of plastic waste by destination, in thousands of tonnes (Bernard, Lapointe, & Martin, 2024)

China's ban on plastic waste imports at the end of 2017 led to an immediate decline in Canadian exports to China. By 2019, exports to China (including Hong Kong) accounted for only 2% of the total plastic waste exported. Some of these exports were redirected to other countries (Bernard, Lapointe, & Martin, 2024). While exports to the rest of the world constituted 5% of the total in the early 2000s, it represented 23% of Canadian exports in 2018. Malaysia (7%), India (5%), and Thailand (3%) emerged as major destinations in 2018. However, these countries quickly implemented restrictive import policies due to their inability to handle the influx of waste. Consequently, the percentage of Canadian plastic waste exported to the rest of the world dropped from 45% in 2016 to 15% in 2019 and then fell to less than 10% between 2020 and 2022. A significant portion of the waste previously destined for China was redirected to the United States, with exports to the U.S. accounting for 93% in 2021, compared to 50% in 2016.

There is speculation that some waste may have been managed domestically in Canada rather than being exported, although this phenomenon is challenging to document due to the lack of standardized databases. However, available data from public bodies and provincial governments, particularly in Quebec, suggest an increase in locally treated plastic waste following the Chinese ban. Prior to 2017, Canada exported an average of nearly 210 metric tonnes of waste, compared to an average of 150 MT between 2018 and 2020 following the Chinese ban (ibid.). Subsequently, exports increased, approaching pre-ban levels by 2022. However, since waste production also increased during this period, it remains uncertain whether the proportion of plastic waste treated and recovered in Canada also increased. Plastic bottles, yogurt cups, and food and beverage containers are among the most recyclable items and are predominantly exported. Data on waste declared at customs, categorized according to the Harmonized System (HS), provide insights into plastic waste trade. However, it's important to note that illegal trade in plastic waste, such as falsified customs declarations or concealing plastic within other materials, complicates the accuracy of these figures. The majority of Canada's plastic waste trade falls under the "other" category, comprising materials like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP), which have high recycling potential. Polyethylene (PE), particularly high-density polyethylene (HDPE) used in milk jugs and ice cream containers, is also exported. Conversely, low-density polyethylene (LDPE), used in plastic bags and food wraps, has lower recycling potential and tends to contaminate recycling chains. PVC and PS have low recycling potential and have seen minimal exportation over the past two decades. The closure of Chinese borders in 2017 significantly impacted the export of "other" plastic waste, while volumes of PE, PVC, and PS remained stable or increased during this period. This divergence suggests that certain waste streams were better sorted, enabling them to be exported under more favourable categories such as PE waste.

Graph 2. Canadian exports of plastic waste, by category, in thousands of tonnes (Bernard, Lapointe, & Martin, 2024)

Presently, Canada imports a greater quantity of plastic waste than it exports, which is a notable departure from the pattern found in the United States and the European Union, both of which are net exporters of plastic waste. In 2019, Canada exported 142 metric tonnes (MT) of plastic waste while importing 166 MT (Bernard, Lapointe, & Martin, 2024). Nearly all (95%) of these imports originated from the U.S., primarily from states along the East Coast such as New York and New Jersey. As identified by previous research, a lack of data detailing the export of plastic waste makes it challenging to conduct accurate analysis of waste export (ibid.)

Graph 3. Plastic waste trade balance in Canada, in volume and today’s dollars (Bernard, Lapointe, & Martin, 2024)

Canada’s plastic waste endangering oceans

Canada significantly contributes to the escalating environmental crisis. Annually, the country introduces millions of tonnes of plastics into its market, amounting to over 125 kilograms per person. A staggering 87 percent of this plastic waste ends up in landfills or the natural environment, with only nine percent of blue box and industrial plastics being recycled. Packaging constitutes nearly half of this waste, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic which has increased the consumption of plastic containers for take-out food, disposable masks, and gloves.

The recycling of single-use plastics is financially burdensome, leading countries like Canada to export their plastic waste problem to others, particularly to less-equipped Asian nations. Over the past three decades, Canada has exported around four million tonnes of plastic waste. Much of this discarded plastic finds its way into the oceans via overflowing trash bins, street litter, and landfill runoff, alongside microplastics from clothing washed into drains. This marine pollution poses a severe threat to whales, birds, turtles, and other marine life.

To foster the necessary innovation to break free from this destructive pattern, Canada must initiate measures such as banning unnecessary single-use plastics, which are the largest contributor to plastic waste in the country.

Researchers have discovered plastic in the deepest ocean trenches (Goodman et al., 2020), embedded within Arctic ice (Obbard et al., 2014), and even present in desert air (Allen et al., 2019; Brahney et al., 2020). This pervasive material poses a threat to marine life, as it suffocates sea turtles and devastates seabird populations (Gall & Thompson, 2015). It pervades our food chain, evident in products like beer, honey, and every fish sampled from the Great Lakes (Campbell, 2018; Rochman et al., 2015). Once produced, plastic does not biodegrade but rather disintegrates into micro- and nano-particles that accumulate throughout ecosystems.

Canada plays a disproportionate role in exacerbating this growing crisis. From 2002 to 2017, our household waste surged by 30 percent, outpacing population and GDP growth (OECD, 2017). Addressing plastic waste exceeds individual consumer actions, as the scale of plastic production spans from everyday items like cars and electronics to clothing and sporting goods. While plastic serves essential functions, manufacturing it for single-use purposes is neither necessary nor sustainable, given its perpetual nature.

Merely increasing recycling efforts will not resolve the issue. Only a small fraction, nine percent, of plastic is recycled domestically in Canada, mirroring global statistics where just nine percent of all plastic ever produced has been recycled (Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017). Exporting our plastic waste exacerbates the problem, often leading to contamination of oceans and shorelines. The solution lies in halting harmful plastic production at its source rather than shifting responsibility elsewhere.

Canada, with the world's longest coastline, carries a significant national and global obligation to halt the proliferation of harmful single-use plastics, which annually contribute to the deaths and injuries of millions of marine animals (Parker, 2019).

Marine creatures are increasingly impacted by plastics. Inside the stomachs of marine turtles, whales, seabirds, and fish, plastic ingestion is prevalent. Research indicates that 90 percent of seabird species (Wilcox, van Sebille, & Hardesty, 2015) and 52 percent of studied sea turtles (Gall & Thompson, 2015) have consumed plastics. This ingestion occurs when animals mistake it for prey or ingest contaminated prey. Even adult birds inadvertently feed plastics to their chicks, posing threats to their survival.

Certain microplastics resemble phytoplankton, zooplankton, and small eggs that are essential to many fish species' diets. Whales have also been observed mistaking plastics for food; studies in Canada's remote Arctic waters have shown microplastics in the stomachs and intestines of every tested beluga whale (Moore et al., 2020).

Canada's consumption and disposal of plastics are disproportionately high. Despite Canadians accounting for less than 0.5 percent of the global population, the country consumes 1.4 percent of the world's plastic production. Annually, Canadians use 4.6 million metric tonnes of plastics, amounting to approximately 125 kilograms per person (Deloitte & Cheminfo Services Inc., 2019). Forecasts suggest this figure could surpass six million metric tonnes by 2030.

The more plastics we use, the more we discard. Each year, over 70 percent of the plastics consumed in Canada—approximately 3.3 million tonnes—are disposed of. Comparatively, Canada generates significantly more plastic waste per capita than countries like India, some Southeast Asian nations, and several Scandinavian countries (Jambeck et al., 2015). Nearly half of Canada's plastic waste, 47 percent, is attributed to packaging such as bottles, wraps, cups, cutlery, and bags (Deloitte and Cheminfo Services Inc., 2019). Alarmingly, nearly all of the 1.6 million tonnes of plastic packaging generated in Canada in 2016 was discarded the same year (ibid.). If current trends persist, Canada could generate an additional 450,000 tonnes of plastic packaging waste by 2030.

Figure 1. The Harm of Plastics (Oceana Canada, 2020)

Graph 1. Plastic Nation (Oceana Canada, 2020). 

Canada has historically played a significant role in the global plastic pollution issue. Between 1988 and 2016, the country exported nearly four million tonnes of plastics primarily to Asia, with China being the main recipient for many years due to its role in manufacturing goods imported by developed nations. This export practice initially emerged as a cost-saving measure to avoid shipping empty containers back to China after goods were imported. However, China's decision in 2017 to stop accepting 24 types of waste dramatically reduced Canada's plastic exports to China from 25,800 tonnes to just 1,000 tonnes the following year. Subsequently, Canada redirected some exports to other Southeast Asian countries such as Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Yet, these countries also eventually ceased accepting mixed and contaminated waste, exacerbating waste management challenges in regions already struggling with inadequate infrastructure. In countries like Indonesia, burning plastic waste has contributed to increased air pollution and contamination of the food chain, with a significant portion ending up in rivers and ultimately the ocean (Wood, 2019).

In early 2020, Malaysia's stance against becoming a dumping ground for global waste was highlighted when the country returned 150 shipping containers of non-recyclable plastic waste to 13 countries, including Canada. Previously, Canada faced a similar situation with the Philippines, where diplomatic tensions arose over Canada's delayed repatriation of illegally shipped garbage, eventually resulting in Canada spending over $1.1 million to bring the waste back (CTV News, 2019).

Currently, substantial amounts of collected recyclable material in Canada and other developed nations sit idle in depots, awaiting viable markets. Many municipalities have halted the collection of certain types of packaging, while some regions, particularly in the U.S., have discontinued recycling programs altogether due to cost constraints and a lack of viable markets for recycled plastics (Corkery, 2019). Despite significant investment in blue box recycling programs nationwide, a staggering 86 percent of all plastic waste generated in Canada, including 79 percent of plastic packaging, ends up in landfills (Deloitte and Cheminfo Services Inc., 2019). This disposal not only occupies increasingly limited landfill space but also poses environmental risks, as plastics can leach hazardous chemicals that may contaminate groundwater (Knoblauch, 2020).

The impact of plastic pollution extends beyond coastal communities, affecting all regions of Canada. Annually, between 40,000 and 170,000 tonnes of plastic become litter across the country, a portion of which is recovered through clean-up efforts that incur substantial costs. For instance, Toronto alone spends approximately $25 million annually on litter collection (CityNews, 2015), while a study estimated that litter costs U.S. entities nearly $11.5 billion USD annually (Mid Atlantic Solid Waste Consultants, 2009).

Figure 2. Call to action (Oceana Canada, 2020)

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